As
mentioned in the previous chapter, Cherif Pasha resigned after refusing
to obey Evelyn Baring ‘s (Lord Cromer) order to evacuate the
Sudan, which was in full rebellion (the Mahdi Revolution). Khedive
Tawfik ‘s choice of Nubar Pasha was based on the fact that Nubar
was
the most agreeable person to Baring. On January 10, 1884,
Nubar formed his second cabinet (1)
keeping for himself the Ministries of Foreign Affairs and Justice.
From
day one, the new Cabinet was characterized by continual conflicts between
Nubar and Baring. The British Representative insisted
that all the Cabinet meetings should be attended by the Deputy Ministers
of Finance and Interior, The Inspector General Of Irrigation and
the Sirdar of the Egyptian Army (Chief Of staff), all of
them British. Nubar was heard on several occasions saying:
Occupation,
yes, Administration, no!! To appease the British, the Cabinet
also agreed to form a committee, composed of Mustafa Fahmi Pasha (2),
the
Minister of Finance, and four other members, all of them foreigners,
to study all the financial and economical matters pertaining to the State
and present their recommendations to the Cabinet.
One
of the first decision of the Cabinet was to abolish the “Shouri Majlis”
(the House of Representatives), claiming that it coasted Egypt ten
thousands pounds a year, an amount considered as too heavy a financial
burden on Egypt!! A second unfortunate decision was to order
the withdrawal of all Egyptian troops from the Sudan, as a result
of the Mahdi Revolution over there; to achieve an orderly withdrawal,
the Cabinet appointed Sir Charles Gordon (Ghardoun Pasha) as the
Egyptian Governor General of the Sudanese Province. Baring
considered the two Cabinet decisions mentioned above as top priorities!
For
all the dependants of those military personnel, lost in action in the
Sudan, the Cabinet approved an indemnity of twenty-five pounds to each
of the families of Egyptian and Sudanese soldiers and fifty pounds
if the killed in action were of Turkish origin!!! It was also decided
that the compulsory military service would not apply to those young men
whose family could afford to pay the sum of one hundred pounds, thus establishing
the “Badalya” system which would last until the end of the nineteen
forties.
The
Cabinet allocated the amount of two pounds a day for each Minister
traveling on duty out of Cairo. That amount would be reduced
to one pound a day for trips of fifteen days or more. To encourage
the theatrical art, the Cabinet exempted the two actors, Abdo Al Hamouli
and Ahmad Abu Khalil, from the payment of their gas bills for as
long as they acted at the Opera Theatre.
During
that period of the history of Egypt, a survey indicated that the
total population of the country reached six millions and eight hundred
and six inhabitants divided as follows: three millions
two hundred and sixteen thousands males and three millions two hundreds
and fifty-two thousands females. The population of Cairo reached
two hundreds and seventy-five thousands residents. On March
12, 1885, a Khedivial decree was issued, at the instigation of the
Cabinet, completely reorganizing the Jails Administration of the Country.
According to that decree, prisoners were not allowed to use alcoholic beverages
or to sing, clap hands or any noisy manifestation of pleasure or grief.
Smoking was allowed only by permission of the Jail Commander (Maamour).
Good behavior by prisoners would be financially rewarded and corporal punishment
would not be inflicted on the prisoners unless they physically attack one
or more of their guards. Physical punishments (whipping) would also
be imposed on the guards if they attack prisoners not in self-defense.
Misbehaving prisoners could be condemned to isolation, with only bread
and water, for a period not to exceed eight days during which the prisoner
is prohibited from having outside visits. The Attorney General
(Al Naeb Al Aam) or any of his deputies were to inspect the jails and
make sure that the above instructions were strictly obeyed.
To
sum it up, the Nubar Cabinet, in spite of British interferences
and humiliations, and in spite of the difficult economical and military
situation then prevailing, tried hard to ameliorate the situation of the
Country. At the end, the relationship between the Cabinet and the
British Proconsul became so tense that Khedive Tawfik presided over
all the Cabinet meetings during the last period of his life. Failing
to cool down the situation, he dismissed the Nubar Cabinet on June
9, 1888.
The
Mahdi revolution started as a religious movement rather than a political
one, and although the events in Egypt with the Orabi Revolution
and the British occupation undoubtedly affected the Sudan, it was
a spontaneous explosion. The prohibition imposed on the trade of
slaves, by Khedive Ismail, which was so detrimental to the Sudanese
well being, and the corrupt administration of Rauf Pasha, a cruel
Turk appointed by Khedive Tawfik as Governor General of the Sudan,
were two main reasons of the rebellion. Another of the rebellion
motive was hatred of the Turks, as the Egyptians were called in the Sudan
since Egypt was still officially a part of the Ottoman Empire.
There were about twenty-eight thousands Egyptian troops stationed
in the various garrisons across the Sudan. Their main duty
was to gather taxes, sometimes with extreme harshness and their behavior
towards the Sudanese was becoming more and more intolerable.
Early
in 1881 the general air of unrest begun to crystallize around the
name of a strange personality who had appeared on Abba Island, about
150
miles upstream from Khartuwm.
This man was said to have set himself up as a new religious, political
and military leader, a Mahdi. He declared that the Sudan
was to be purged from the corrupt “Turks” and the Sudanese were to be brought
back to the austerities of the true faith of Islam. His preaching
sounded so close to those of Mohammad Ibn Abdel Wahab in the Najd
desert
of
Arabia, a hundred and fifty years earlier, even though he probably
never heard of the Wahabi Doctrine.
To
annihilate the Revolt at its birth, Rauf Pasha sent two hundred
soldiers
led by Abu Saud, a notorious slaves dealer, on an expedition to
Abba Island. That small force was annihilated and, with the captured
weapons and cash, the Mahdi (3)
spread
his movement to the Kordofan Province where it was joined by the
“Baggara” tribe, well known for the bravery of its members.
Soon the Mahdi besieged El Obeid, the capital of the Kordofan,
which in turn fell to the Mahdists.
The
Mahdi,
his real name was Mohammad Ahmad Ibn El Sayed Abdullah, was born
in Dongola, in Northern Sudan, in 1844. He followed
the true tradition of the warrior/religious leaders of Islam.
Like desert sand storm he appeared suddenly and inexplicably out of nowhere,
and, by some strange process of attraction, generated an ever-increasing
force as he moved along.
A
larger contingent of Sudanese and Egyptian troops of about ten thousand
men, under the Command of Colonel William Hicks Pasha, was dispatched
to crash Mahdism. Like Abu Saud’ s force, the Hicks column
was totally destroyed. At this point the British Government urged
the Nubar Cabinet to completely evacuate the Sudan and the Egyptian
Government reluctantly agreed. The British Government appointed General
Sir Charles Gordon Pasha (1833-1885) (4),
an ex Governor of the Sudan better known as Ghardoon Pasha,
to carry on the mission of evacuating the Egyptian troops and their families.
The Mahdists besieged Gordon in Khartoum (5)and,
after a heroic defense, the city fell to the rebels on January 26, 1885.
Gordon
was killed defending the Governor General mansion and his dead body was
decapitated and paraded in the streets of the fallen city. The Mahdi
did not live long enough to savor his victory; he died in Omdourman
five months after the fall of Khartoum
(To be continued)
Kamal K. Katba
(1)
(2)
(3)
Born
in 1844, Muhammed Ahmad Ibn-al-Sayyid-`Abd Allah became interested
in religion at an early age. His carpenter father encouraged his
development by sending him to a 'khalwas,' or religious school,
that was traditionally led by a teacher. Part of his instruction
involved learning the Qur'an by heart. Muhammad Ahmad's
asceticism and dedication gained attention from teachers and local
people. Most scholars, as well as his enemies in the British army
such as Charles Gordon and Winston Churchill, share Neillands's view
of the Mahdiy:
"The
broad thrust of Muhammed Ahmad's teaching followed that of other
reformers in other religions. His Islam was one devoted to the words
of the Prophet and based on a return to the original virtues of prayer
and simplicity as laid down in the Qur'an. Any deviation from
the Qur'an was therefore heresy. There was also a political edge
to this doctrine. The way to paradise lay through humility
and a strict observance of the tenets of Islam.
Muhammed
Ahmad was an inspiring teacher. His message - that this world was
but a testing ground and paradise awaited those who followed the
Muslim faith - had a strong appeal to a people who found their daily
lives hard in the extreme and welcomed the promise or prospect of
a better life if not in this world then in the one to come. As far
as this life was concerned, a better life depended on getting free of
the 'Turks'.
(4)
Charles
George 'Chinese' Gordon (January 28, 1833 - January 26, 1885) was a British
soldier and administrator. He is remembered for his exploits in China,
Egypt and the Sudan .
Early
career
Gordon
was born in Woolwich, the fourth son of General H. W. Gordon of the Royal
Artillery. He was educated at Taunton School and then at the Royal Military
Academy in Woolwich starting in 1848. He was commissioned in 1852 as a
2nd Lieutenant in the Royal Engineers, completing his training at the Royal
Engineers' school at Chatham, and promoted to full Lieutenant in 1854.
At
first he was assigned to the construction of fortifications in defence
of Milford Haven. But the Crimean War broke out and Gordon was ordered
on active service, arriving at Balaklava in January 1855. He was put to
work in the siege of Sevastopol and took part in the assault of Redan from
June 18 to September 8. He took part in the expedition to Kinburn, and
returned to Sevastopol at the end of the conflict. With the peace Gordon
was attached to an international commission delimiting the new boundary
between Russia and Turkey in Bessarabia. He continued with the surveying
work, extending the marking of the boundary into Asia Minor. He returned
to England towards the end of 1858, and was appointed as an instructor
at Chatham and was promoted captain in April 1859.
China
His
stay in England was brief, in 1860 war was declared against China (the
Second Opium War), and Gordon was ordered there, arriving at Tientsin in
September. He missed the attack on the Taku forts, but was present at the
occupation of Beijing and destruction of the Summer Palace. He remained
with the British forces occupying northern China until April 1862, when
the troops, under General William Staveley, withdrew to Shanghai to protect
the European settlement from the Taiping rebels which were threatening
the city.
The
emperor promoted Gordon to the rank of titu, the highest grade in the Chinese
army, and decorated him with the Yellow Jacket. The British promoted Gordon
to lieutenant-colonel and made him a Companion of the Bath. He also gained
the popular nickname 'Chinese' Gordon.
Africa
Gordon
returned to England and commanded the Royal Engineer efforts around Gravesend,
the erection of forts for the defence of the Thames. In October 1871 he
was appointed British representative on the international commission to
maintain the navigation of the mouth of the River Danube, with headquarters
at Galatz. In 1872 Gordon was sent to inspect the British military cemeteries
in the Crimea, and when passing through Constantinople he made the acquaintance
of the prime minister of Egypt, who opened negotiations for Gordon to serve
under the khedive. In 1873 Gordon received a definite offer from the khedive,
which he accepted with the consent of the British government, and proceeded
to Egypt early in 1874. Gordon was made a colonel in the Egyptian army.
The
Egyptian authorities has been extending their control southwards since
the 1820s. An expedition was sent up the White Nile, under Sir Samuel Baker,
which reached Khartuwm in February 1870 and Gondokoro
in June 1871. Baker met with great difficulties and managed little beyond
establishing a few posts along the Nile. It was to succeed Baker as governor
of the region that the khedive asked for Gordon. After a short stay in
Cairo, Gordon proceeded to Khartuwm via Suakin
and Berber. From Khartuwm he proceeded up the White
Nile to Gondokoro.
Gordon
remained in the Gondokoro provinces until October 1876. He had succeeded
in establishing a line of way-stations from the Sobat confluence on the
White Nile to the frontier of Uganda, where he proposed to open a route
from Mombasa. Considerable progress was made in the suppression of the
slave trade. However Gordon had come into conflict with the Egyptian governor
of Khartuwm and Sudan. The clash led to Gordon informing the khedive
that he did not wish to return to the Sudan and he left for London. Ismail
Pasha wrote to him saying that he had promised to return, and that he expected
him to keep his word. Gordon agreed to return to Cairo, but insisted that
he was appointed governor-general of the entire Sudan. After some discussion
the khedive agreed, and made him governor-general of the entire Sudan.
As
governor, Gordon took on a number of wider issues. One was the relations
between Egypt and Abyssinia, which had slumped in a dispute over the district
of Bogos. War broke out in 1875, and an Egyptian expedition was completely
defeated near Gundet. A second and larger expedition, under Prince Hasan,
was sent the following year and was routed at Gura. Matters then remained
quiet until March 1877, when Gordon proceeded to Massawa hoping to make
peace with the Abyssinians. He went up to Bogos and wrote to the king proposing
terms. But he received no reply as the king had gone southwards to fight
with the Shoa. Gordon, seeing that the Abyssinian difficulty could wait,
proceeded to Khartuwm.
An
insurrection had broken out in Darfur and Gordon went there. The insurgents
were very numerous and he saw that diplomacy had a better chance of success.
Gordon, accompanied only by an interpreter, rode into the enemy's camp
to discuss the situation. This bold move proved successful, as part of
the insurgents joined him, and the remainder retreated to the south. Gordon
then visited the provinces of Berber and Dongola, and then returned to
the Abyssinian frontier before ending up back in Khartuwm
in January 1878. Gordon was summoned to Cairo, arriving in March he was
appointed president of a commission. The khedive was was deposed in 1879
in favour of his son.
Gordon
returned south. He proceeded to Harrar, south of Abyssinia, and, finding
the administration in a bad condition, dismissed the governor. He then
returned to Khartuwm, and went again into Darfur to suppress the
slave traders. His subordinate, Gessi Pasha, fought with great success
in the Bahr-al-Ghazal district and put an end to the
revolt there. Gordon then tried another peace mission to Abyssinia. The
matter ended with Gordon being made a prisoner and sent back to Massawa.
Thence he returned to Cairo and resigned his Sudan appointment. He was
exhausted by the years of incessant work.
In
March 1880 Gordon visited King Leopold in Brussels and was invited to take
charge of the Congo Free State. In April the government of the Cape Colony
offered him the position of commandant of the Cape local forces. In May
the marquess of Ripon, who had been given the post of governor-general
of India, asked Gordon to go with him as private secretary. Gordon accepted
this last offer but shortly after arriving in India he resigned. Hardly
had he resigned when he was invited by Sir Robert Hart, inspector-general
of customs in China, to Beijing. He arrived in China in July and met Li
Hung-chang, and learnt that there was risk of war with Russia. Gordon proceeded
to Beijing and used all his influence to ensure peace. Gordon returned
to England, but in April 1881 left for Mauritius as Commanding Royal Engineer.
He remained in Mauritius until March 1882, when he was promoted to major-general.
He was sent to the Cape to aid in settling affairs in Basutoland. He returned
to England after only a few months. Being unemployed Gordon decided to
go to Palestine, a country he had long desired to visit, and remained for
a year. The king of the Belgians then asked him again to take charge of
the Congo Free State, he accepted and returned to London to make preparations.
But a few days after his arrival he was requested by the British government
to proceed immediately to the Sudan, where the situation had declined badly
after his departure -- another evolt had arisen, led by the self-proclaimed
Mahdiy, Muhammed Ahmad.
In
December 1883, the British government ordered Egypt to abandon the Sudan,
but abandonment was difficult to carry out as it involved the withdrawal
of thousands of Egyptian soldiers, civilian employés and their families.
The British government asked Gordon to proceed to Khartuwm to report
on the best method of carrying out the evacuation.
Gordon
started for Cairo in January 1884, accompanied by J. D. H. Stewart. At
Cairo he received further instructions from Sir Evelyn Baring, and was
appointed governor-general with executive powers. Travelling through Korosko
and Berber, he arrived at Khartuwm on February 18. Gordon
at once commenced the task of sending the women and children and the sick
and wounded to Egypt, and about 2,500 had been removed before the mahdi's
forces closed in. Gordon hoped to have the influential local leader Zubayr
appointed to take control of Sudan, but the British government refused
to support a former slaver.
The
advance of the rebels against Khartuwm was combined with
a revolt in the eastern Sudan, the Egyptian troops at Suakin were
repeatedly defeated. A British force was sent to Suakin under General Sir
Gerald Graham, and forced the rebels away in several hard-fought actions.
Gordon urged that the road from Suakin to Berber should be opened,
but this request was refused by the government in London, and in April
Graham and his forces were withdrawn and Gordon and the Sudan were abandoned.
The garrison at Berber surrendered in May and Khartuwm was
completely isolated.
Gordon
organized the defense of Khartuwm, with a siege starting
on March 18, 1884. The British had decided to abandon the Sudan, but it
was clear that Gordon had other plans, and the public started to increasingly
call for his relief. It was not until August that the government decided
to take steps to relieve Gordon but it was not until the beginning of November
that the British relief force was ready to start.
The
force conisisted of two groups, a "flying column" of camel-born troops
from Wadi Halfa. The troops reached Korti towards the end of December,
and arrived at Metemma on January 20. There they found four gunboats which
had been sent south by Gordon four months earlier, and prepared them for
the trip back up the Nile. On the 24th two of the steamers started for
Khartuwm,
but on arriving there on the 28th they found that the city had been captured
and Gordon killed two days before.
(5)
Khartuwm
(in Arabic, al-Khartuwm: meaning elephant trunk) is
the capital of Sudan, at the point where the White Nile coming from Uganda
meets the Blue Nile coming from Ethiopia. The Nile flows north from here
towards Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea.
The
city proper has a population of well over a million, but forms with its
neighbours
Khartuwm North (al-Khartuwm Bahriy
and Omdurman (Umm Durman) a metropolis totalling now probably
over four million inhabitants.
Troops
loyal to al-Mahdiy Muhammad Ahmad laid siege to Khartuwm
starting on March 13, 1884 and captured the city, defended by General Gordon,
on January 26, 1885. |
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